{"id":219,"date":"2018-10-07T17:24:50","date_gmt":"2018-10-08T00:24:50","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/linguamonium.com\/?p=219"},"modified":"2021-04-25T20:09:23","modified_gmt":"2021-04-25T20:09:23","slug":"i-heart-hangry-bagel-droids-or-how-new-words-form","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/linguamonium.com\/?p=219","title":{"rendered":"I heart hangry bagel droids (or: How new words form)"},"content":{"rendered":"

You\u2019re probably familiar with the old adage \u201cthe only thing that’s constant is change.\u201d Still, so many people tend to think about language as a relatively fixed affair. I\u2019ve said it before (and will inevitably say it again): all living languages change all the time, and at all levels \u2013 phonological (sounds!), morphological (word-bits!), lexical (words!), syntactic (clauses!), and semantic (meaning!).<\/p>\n

Historical linguistics <\/strong>(also known as diachronic linguistics<\/strong>) is the study of how and why languages change over time. In this post I\u2019m going to discuss categories of change at the morphological and lexical levels \u2013 how new words come into being. In the future, I\u2019ll explore semantic and perhaps phonological change.<\/p>\n

Without further ado, here are the main mechanisms of word formation. Almost all examples are for English, but these formation types apply to other languages as well. (NOTE: Processes are not mutually exclusive. It is quite possible for a word to undergo multiple processes simultaneously, or one on the heels of another.)<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Derivation<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    New words are born by adding affixes<\/strong> to existing words. Affixes are bound<\/strong>[1]<\/a> morphemes that can be prefixes<\/strong>, suffixes<\/strong>, and even (for certain languages, although not really for English) infixes<\/a><\/strong> and circumfixes<\/a><\/strong>. Derivation is a very common process cross-linguistically.<\/p>\n

    Zero derivation <\/strong>(also known as conversion<\/strong>) is a special case where a new word, with a new word class<\/strong> (part of speech) is created from an existing word of a different class, without any change in form.<\/p>\n

    Examples:
    \n(Derivation) hater <\/em>[hate + -er], truthiness <\/em>[truth + -i (-y) + -ness], deglobalization <\/em>[de- + globalization], hipsterdom <\/em>[hipster + -dom]<\/p>\n

    (Zero derivation) heart<\/em> as verb, as in \u201cI heart coffee\u201d [heart <\/em>as noun]; friend<\/em> as verb, as in \u201che friended me on Facebook\u201d [friend <\/em>as noun]; green <\/em>as noun, in the golf lawn sense [green <\/em>as adjective]; down <\/em>as verb, as in \u201cHector downed a beer\u201d [down <\/em>as preposition]<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Back-formation<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      This process creates a new word through the removal of true or incorrectly assumed affixes. It\u2019s kind of the opposite of derivation. This one is easier to explain through examples:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
      \n

      New word<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

      		Derived from older word<\/strong><\/td>\n\n

      Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      \n

      donate, automate, resurrect <\/em><\/p>\n

      (verbs)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

      		donation, automation, resurrection<\/em><\/p>\n

      (nouns)<\/td>\n

      		\n

      The nouns were borrowed into English first from Latin. The verbs were back-formed later by discarding the -ion<\/em> suffix, which speakers did through analogy with other Latinate verb and (-ion<\/em>) noun pairs that already existed in English.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      \n

      pea<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

      		pease<\/em><\/td>\n\n

      The older form was initially a mass noun (like water<\/em> or sand<\/em>), but was reanalyzed as plural. People then dropped the \u201cplural\u201d -s(e)<\/em> to form the \u201csingular\u201d count noun pea<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      beg<\/em>, edit<\/em>, hawk<\/em><\/p>\n

      (verbs)<\/td>\n

      		beggar, editor, hawker<\/em><\/p>\n

      (nouns)<\/td>\n

      		\n

      Speakers mistook the -ar<\/em>, -or<\/em>, and \u00ad-er<\/em> on the ends of these nouns (respectively) for the agentive suffix (that did\/does exist in English), and removed it to form corresponding verbs.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      lime-a-rita<\/em>, mango-rita<\/em><\/p>\n

      appletini, kiwini<\/em><\/td>\n

      		margarita<\/em><\/p>\n

      martini<\/em><\/td>\n

      		\n

      Actually examples of folk etymology<\/strong>, which is related to back-formation. Here, speakers incorrectly assumed that -rita <\/em>in margarita <\/em>and \u2013(t)ini <\/em>in martini<\/em> were separate morphemes (indicating the class of cocktail). Under that assumption, they switched out the rest of the word and substituted it with morphemes indicating new twists\/ingredients.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        \n
      1. Blending<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Also known as portmanteaus<\/strong>. Blends are produced by combining two or more words, where parts of one or both words are deleted.<\/p>\n

        Examples: smog <\/em>[smoke + fog], brunch <\/em>[breakfast + lunch], infomercial <\/em>[information + commercial], bromance<\/em> [bro + romance], hangry <\/em>[hungry + angry], clopen <\/em>[close + open][2]<\/a><\/p>\n

          \n
        1. Borrowing<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          Also known as loan words<\/strong>. These are expressions taken from other languages. Pronunciation is usually altered to fit the phonological rules of the borrowing language.<\/p>\n

          Examples: algebra <\/em>[from Arabic], m\u00e9nage \u00e0 trois <\/em>[from French], whisky <\/em>[from Scots Gaelic or Irish], bagel<\/em> [from Yiddish], doppelg\u00e4nger <\/em>[from German], karaoke <\/em>[from Japanese]<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Coinage<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Words can be created outright to fit some purpose. Many of these are initially product names.<\/p>\n

            Examples: Xerox, Kleenex, Jell-O, Google, zipper, Frisbee <\/em><\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Compounding<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Two or more words join together to form a compound<\/strong>. Frequently the joining words are nouns, but they can belong to different parts of speech, including verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc. Compounds can be separated by spaces, by hyphens, or glued to each other with nothing intervening.<\/p>\n

              Examples: homework, grocery store, mother-of-pearl<\/em>, first world problem, binge-watch, weaksauce, fake news<\/em><\/p>\n

                \n
              1. Eponyms<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                These are words that derive from proper nouns \u2013 usually people and place names. If a proper noun is used frequently enough and across multiple contexts, it eventually becomes a common noun (or verb or adjective).<\/p>\n

                Examples: sandwich <\/em>[after the fourth Earl of Sandwich], gargantuan <\/em>[after Gargantua, name of the giant in Rabelais\u2019 novels],<\/em> boycott <\/em>[after Capt. Charles C. Boycott], mesmerize <\/em>[a back-formation from mesmerism<\/em>, in turn after Franz Anton Mesmer], sadism <\/em>[after the Marquis de Sade]<\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. Reducing<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  Several types of reducing processes exist.\u00a0 The main ones are clipping<\/strong>, acronyms<\/strong>, and initialisms<\/strong>.<\/p>\n

                  a. Clipping<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  New words can be formed by shearing one or more syllables off an existing longer word. Syllables can be removed from the word\u2019s beginning, end, or both.<\/p>\n

                  Examples: fax <\/em>[facsimile], flu <\/em>[influenza], droid <\/em>[android], fridge <\/em>[refrigerator], blog <\/em>[weblog]<\/p>\n

                  b. Acronyms<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  Words are created from the initial letters of several other words. Acronyms are pronounced as regular words (in contrast to initialisms below).<\/p>\n

                  Examples: NASA <\/em>[National Aeronautics and Space Administration], RAM <\/em>[random-access memory], FOMO <\/em>[fear of missing out]<\/p>\n

                  c. Initialisms<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  Also known as Alphabetisms<\/strong>. Like with acronyms, a word is created from the initial letters of other words, but the resulting term is pronounced by saying each letter. This usually happens when the string of letters is not easily pronounced as a word according to the phonological rules of the language.<\/p>\n

                  Examples: NFL <\/em>[National Football League], UCLA <\/em>[University of California, Los Angeles], MRI <\/em>[magnetic resonance imaging], WTF <\/em>[what the fuck]<\/p>\n

                    \n
                  1. Reduplication<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                    Reduplication is one of my favorite phenomena.[3]<\/a> It\u2019s a process whereby a word or sound is repeated or nearly repeated to form a new word\/expression. This is a productive <\/strong>morphological process (meaning, it\u2019s part of the grammar and happens frequently and rather systematically) in many languages \u2013 South-East Asian and Austronesian languages particularly (e.g. Malay, Tagalog, Samoan). It\u2019s not an especially productive process in English, although it does still happen.<\/p>\n

                    Examples:
                    \n(English) wishy-washy<\/em>, teensy-weensy, goody-goody<\/em>, cray-cray, po-po<\/em><\/p>\n

                    (Samoan) savali <\/em>[\u2018he travels\u2019 \u2013 third person singular + verb];\u00a0savavali <\/em>[\u2018they travel\u2019 \u2013 third person plural + verb]<\/p>\n

                    * * * * *<\/p>\n

                    Phew! Since hopefully you can see the light at the end of this long lexical tunnel, I\u2019ll mention that of course languages lose words as well. Diverse factors motivate word loss, but that\u2019s a subject for another post. A few quick examples of words that have fallen out of favor in English:<\/p>\n

                    pell-mell <\/em>[in a disorderly, reckless, hasty manner];\u00a0davenport <\/em>[couch\/sofa \u2013 my grandma used to say this]; grass <\/em>[for marijuana \u2013 my mom still says this]; porridge <\/em>[an oatmeal-like dish boiled in water or milk]; tumbrel <\/em>[a farmer\u2019s cart for hauling manure]; fain <\/em>[gladly or willingly]<\/p>\n

                    * * * * *<\/p>\n

                    And now\u2026 ADD WORDS TO THE SPREADSHEET \u2013 Word shenanigans!<\/a><\/p>\n

                    I\u2019ve got almost 200 in there to start us off. If you\u2019re not sure about the process for any particular word, just leave it blank or take a guess. Free bagel droids[4]<\/a> to all who contribute.<\/p>\n

                     <\/p>\n

                    [1]<\/a> Bound<\/strong> meaning they cannot exist on their own, but must be attached to another morpheme.<\/p>\n

                    [2]<\/a> Describes a shitty situation where one has to work a closing shift followed by an opening shift. We used this term as bartenders, although I\u2019d never seen it in print until recently. It came up in some paperwork I had to sign relating to work week ordinances, and then I saw it here<\/a> as well.<\/p>\n

                    [3]<\/a> Some languages even have triplication <\/strong>\u2013 where the sound\/word is copied twice!<\/p>\n

                    [4]<\/a> Kidding! These do not exist outside of my head. Sorry.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                    You\u2019re probably familiar with the old adage \u201cthe only thing that’s constant is change.\u201d Still, so many people tend to think about language as a relatively fixed affair. I\u2019ve said it before (and will inevitably say it again): all living languages change all the time, and at all levels \u2013 phonological (sounds!), morphological (word-bits!), lexical…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":220,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":false,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","enabled":false}}},"categories":[11,14,17,18,30,33],"tags":[102,129,152,175],"class_list":["post-219","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-etymology","category-historical-linguistics","category-lexicology-lexicography","category-lists","category-syntax-morphology","category-words","tag-language-change","tag-new-words","tag-slang","tag-word-formation"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"yoast_head":"\nI heart hangry bagel droids (or: How new words form) - Linguamonium<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/linguamonium.com\/?p=219\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"I heart hangry bagel droids (or: How new words form) - Linguamonium\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"You\u2019re probably familiar with the old adage \u201cthe only thing that’s constant is change.\u201d Still, so many people tend to think about language as a relatively fixed affair. 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